The Shepheardes Calender (1579)
On-line texts:
Spenser's poetry is still pretty much the preserve of book-readers. On-line texts are, all too often, the unchecked manglings of OCR programs.
Much the best one I've found is Risa S. Bear's on-line edition
http://www.luminarium.org/renascence-editions/shepheard.html
, notwithstanding the glaring omission of
Iune 43b. It doesn't
provide any line numbers, and I could live without the hyperlinks to E.K.'s notes, but it looks good and is a pleasure to read.
Be warned that David Hill Radcliffe's interesting repository
Spenser and the Tradition: English Poetry 1579-1830 (
http://spenserians.cath.vt.edu/AuthorRecord.php?&action=GET&recordid=24&page=AuthorRecord)
presents Spenser's poems in the wretchedly inaccurate text of John Hughes (1715). For example, the "winding witche" of
Iune 20 (discussed below) appears in Hughes as a "winding Ditch"!
*
“Of the
Shepherd’s Calendar as poetry we must frankly
confess that it commits the one sin for which, in literature, no merits can
compensate; it is rather dull.” Thus begins C.S. Lewis’ account in
English
Literature in the Sixteenth Century (1954). That's a jejune kind of criticism, no doubt; so was Lewis's source in Henry James' "The Art of Fiction": "The only obligation to which in advance we may hold a novel without incurring the accusation of being arbitrary, is that it be interesting." It hadn't taken modernists very long to problematize James' bourgeois category of interestingness.
It's a little jejune, and besides Lewis was, as he always was, stitching together an ideological myth. This one is about the great conservative poet who had not yet found his true voice. (Lewis's myths are always about the early twentieth century as well as the sixteenth century.) In his youth, the future conservative poet risks the left-wing temptations of coterie poetry and smart young forward-thinkers. Only later will his true, inner, spiritual and timelessly conservative vision be allowed to glide forth without being hindered by his clever friends. The place of dullness in the Lewisian myth of the young Spenser is therefore complex. On the one hand it is a hit at coterie productions in general: the
Shepheard's Calender was supposed to be the sensational Next Big Thing, but it turns out to be a bit dull. On the other hand, the dullness is also a gentle prefigurement of Spenser's future greatness; it is a mark of his seriousness, his inability to be "turned". He will never be smart or sexy; he will never be the most brilliant or lovable of personalities. But when he does become great, the greatness will be of a quieter and more enduring kind. That, more or less, is Lewis' myth.
But there was also some truth to what Lewis said; it wouldn't have much power as a myth if there wasn't. If you want to know whether it would be more exciting to read
Venus and Adonis, or
The Pardoner's Tale, or [Insert your own choice of thrilling poem] - well, there’s no more to be said. You do not come to the
Shepheard's Calender to be enthralled in that sort of way.
But still, you get a new job in Bedfordshire (or Cambridgeshire, perhaps?) - and then it’s
no longer useful to be told about how dull the landscape is. These things happen and
you’re going to make the best of it and you want to know how to live there and
how to feed your imagination. You’re optimistic and you know that, once you’ve
managed to adjust, your imagination will survive the shock, and dullness is
going to turn out to be, really, rather interesting. You don’t have the choice
of extinguishing Bedfordshire; it just exists. And therefore there is a way,
not perhaps an instantly obvious way, of becoming absorbed in it.
It’s this landscape quality – let’s name it quietness, though that's just a cipher – that I’m trying to fix
on. It can’t be done directly, not by me anyway, but these notes have a common purpose in trying
to re-direct a focus on it. What one must add at the outset is that
The Shepheardes
Calender has a beguilingly complex structure, at least in principle. It
takes the already complex form that Virgil derived from Theocritus and
superimposes an annual cycle, a love-situation of the kind used in
sonnet-sequences (semi-static and unrequited), and political commentary of the
post-Mantuan type. Plus obscure references to his friends in disguise.
[In what follows, line-length and rhyme-scheme are shown as e.g.
a4b3a4b3.
The letters indicate the rhyme-scheme and the numbers indicate the number of
accents in each line.]
Januarye.
Six-line stanzas,
a5b5a5b5c5c5, regularly iambic. The
poem ends with an alexandrine.
Januarye is quiet, stately and isolated (like a sunny
day in the deep of winter). Spenser’s winter eclogues reflect a tension between
the English season dictated by the calendrical scheme and an originally
Mediterranean form in which the weather is always suitable for outdoor
versifying.
Januarye is to some extent an introduction to the
whole sequence. It tells us all we need to know about Colin, Rosalind and
Hobbinol. More importantly, it introduces us to the mental climate that the
poem will inhabit; often doleful, rather quiet, and engaged with long-term
moods not with drama.
It also introduces us to the prevalent neo-Medievalism of
Spenser’s style. As early as line 10, we are sensitized to Chaucerian echoes:
Well couth he tune his pipe, and frame his stile.
More integrated with the poem is a general debt to the
alliterative tradition, probably Langland in particular. Spenser does not use
Langland’s rhythms, but he uses alliteration in a similar way, not as a
lapidary feature but as a background that comes and goes like a not-too-summery
breeze. (Langland, compared with most of his peers, reduced alliteration and
discovered a new flexibility by e.g. alliterating on unaccented syllables, or
somewhat vaguely on vowels, or on prepositions and other low-key words.) In
Januarye
rather more than half the lines contain some sort of fairly overt
alliteration – it becomes less prevalent in the last three or four stanzas when
a new sharpness of tone appears, especially in the clinching couplets at the
stanza-ends:
Ah foolish Hobbinol, thy gifts bene vayne:
Colin them gives to Rosalind againe. (59-60)
.....
Shepheards deuise she hateth as the snake,
And laughes the songes, that Colin Clout doth make. (65-66)
You could easily consider these the best lines in the poem: bright and ringing. However, from a structural point of view the heart of the
poem comes earlier:
Stanzas 1-2 describe Colin’s arrival with his sheep.
St 3: Colin’s invocation to the gods.
St 4-8: Colin’s lament. This has a little sub-structure of its own, gradually receding from the universality of
the ground and the season (St 4-5) to the details of trees (St 6-7) and then focussing right down to his own small flock of sheep (St 8).
St 9: The lament sounds like it should have carried on at the same pace, but Colin speeds up, breaks into
personal narrative, speaks of Hobbinol (St 10), and the “lasse” who rejects both him and his devices (i.e. songs) (St 11). Then in his growing anguish he breaks his pipe and lies down (St 12).
St 13 describes Colin going home.
This analysis directs us to the lines at the end of St 4-5, i.e. when the lament is most simply and solidly a statement of itself, not a bonus add-on.
And now is come thy wynters stormy state,
Thy mantle mard, wherin thou maskedst late. (23-24)
“Maskedst” contains the idea of illusion, and delusion. Spenser does
not equate the seasonal rhythms simply with contrasting emotions:
summery joy and wintry pain. Every one of the poems in the
Calender makes
some sort of rift with that scheme, and their endings are downbeat accords,
suggesting prolonged continuities whose surfaces are just ruffled by the
poems.
At the end of the stanza about the sheep:
With mourning pyne I, you with pyning mourne. (48)
The two terms are not synonymous here. To “pyne” in this
instance is to waste away physically, i.e. the line means “I’m getting thin
because I’m sad, but you’re sad because you’re so thin”. Colin has momentarily
felt an impulse of care for his flock, fondly addressed as “Thou feeble flock”.
At this point, he registers a sense of community with the sheep – Poor fellows,
we’re all together under an angry heaven. But the switch to “you” in the last
line shows him moving away from identification with the sheep, and it actually
expresses a contrast between himself and them. From this point onwards he
ceases to make analogies between himself and the state of things around him.
It’s the thought of his individual story that destroys the fragile equilibrium
of his lament and leads eventually to the small upset, the tantrum at the end
of St 12.
Februarie.
Februarie is written in neo-Medieval couplets.
Working out how they’re supposed to go is a puzzle. It is a meter of
approximations rather than definite rules. There is a general approximation to a beat of
four accents sounding like this:
Bang, Bang (pause)
Bang, Crash!
(where “
Crash!” represents the rhyme-word); but
there’s a good deal of license about the number of unaccented syllables. The
accents are best thought of not as four separate entities but as two
two-pronged epithets that the rest of the line works around (they are often
highlighted by alliteration, which needs to be looked out for). For example:
Must not the world wend
|| in his commun course (11)
(This line, as frequently happens, starts with a little flutter of three
unaccented syllables before the meat of the line arrives.)
Occasionally, though not very often, a line happens to look like
a regular “iambic tetrameter” (“So smirke, so smoothe, his pricked eares”). But
it mustn’t be rolled off that way. Instead, we need to go for no pausing at the first comma,
and a full caesura on the second:
So smirke so smoothe
|| his pricked eares
Most commonly the lines look like
nearly regular
tetrameters, loaded with extra unaccented syllables, producing the
characteristic rhythm of
blankety-blank: “The
soueraigne of seas”, “So
loytring live”, “You
thinken to be ||
Lords of the yeare”,
etc.
However, no description fully covers all the lines. The
verse may have a bent for certain
kinds of regularity, but it never attains them for more than a couple of lines at a
time – and, I believe, must not do so; just as the composer of atonal music avoids bringing notes together that could suggest a common tonality.
Alliteration is frequent but not predominant, and it may cut across from one
half-line to the next, or drop around the accents rather than onto them. Some
lines have no plausible caesura. The upshot is that you can never predict the rhythm of the
next line with any confidence; you can’t settle into a lilt. It was
meant to
sound joltingly rough.
In Thenot’s lines,
Ne euer was to Fortune foeman,
But gently tooke, that vngently came. (21-22)
Spenser must originally have written “comen”.
This dialogue achieves a wonderful contrast between Cuddie’s
celebration of youthful vigour and Thenot’s persuasive defence of tradition. For some reason I can't explain Cuddie is minding cows here, not sheep.
The story of the briar and the oak plainly (yet elusively) evokes consideration
of church reforms. At the same time this should not distract from the visual
image. The briar is a field-rose, with waxy, smooth (though thorny) stems –
young growth mostly. The oak in those pre-industrial times of clean air would
have been covered with tree-lichens (in those days they were not distinguished from moss, and
indeed one of the commonest UK tree-lichens is still known as “oak moss”); so
when the briar talks about “The mouldie mosse, which thee accloieth” he is mainly
referring to the masses of shaggy lichen that envelop the twigs. This
extraneous growth can give a very misleading sense of a tree’s senility, and
the fable thus reports the wonder that everyone feels at how oak-trees can seem so
robust and yet apparently tolerate such a weight of other life living on
them.
March.
In tail-rhyme,
a4a4b3c4c4b3. The rhythmic pulse is
mainly “iambic” but with a large number of deviations, especially in the
trimeters.
Or made preuie to the same
Whereby by chaunce I him knewe
For the next three centuries of English verse, these would
be routinely regularized into
Or learnèd of the same
Where him by chaunce I knewe
Spenser could have done it effortlessly, but he clearly
wanted the roughnesses. Skipping between two conflicting meters had
considerable potential for expression.
A short poem lying between two much more substantial ones,
March
feels sketchy, speedy, inconsequent rather than minor. Though
it is a dialogue, it is not a debate.
Spenser retained the all-male convention for speakers of
Eglogues, and sexuality here and in
Februarie means above all “corage”:
potency, excitement, vigour and energy transmuted into action with hints of
violence. (Compare how swiftly Cuddie’s poetical “corage” cools at the
other end of the year, in
October.)
Part of the poem's sense of speed and gappiness arises from the
thought that now is a time for doing and not speaking. (Compare Cuddie’s
remarks about Phillis.)
The clouted ewe with the broken legs is a disquieting image
of the season’s potential – that is, of activity’s potential – for real consequences and
real disasters. Thomalin’s wound is likewise “in earnest”.
Aprill.
The frame consists of pentameter quatrains,
a5b5a5b5,
often linked (i.e. successive quatrains
b5c5b5c5 c5d5c5d5 etc) – compare
the frame of
Nouember. The lay of Eliza has a complex stanza-form
a5b2a5b2c5c5d2d2c4.
Each
b line is (usually) uncapitalized, suggesting that it is to be
understood in combination with the preceding
a line as a divided
fourteener. The poem is at first regularly “iambic”, but from line 60 onwards
(in the middle of the lay’s third stanza) rhythmic irregularities become the
norm. This is odd (though cf.
March) but it works well; the splendid lay
gains a sprightliness from irregularities that lie aslant the original flow –
as if at first we observe the surface of a smooth river in shadow, and then see
a play of sunlight across it.
Maye.
Neo-Medieval couplets, and see the remarks on
Februarie.
Yet the effect here is somewhat different. It is a slacker, more garrulous poem
(the longest in the
Calender) and the talk of the old men looks like it
could run on and on: even at the close Piers is saying: “Of their falshode more
could I recount...”. It is also in contrast to the urgency of
March,
whose youthful protagonists have to watch their own sheep. Spenser loosens the
fabric, displaces the caesuras and includes a number of lines that it is
difficult not to read as iambic pentameters:
Ah Piers, bene not thy teeth on edge, to
thinke
Passen their time, that should be sparely spent
In lustihede and wanton meryment.
For Pan himselfe was their inheritaunce
Some gan to gape for greedie gouernaunce
Three thinges to beare, bene very burdenous
Let none mislike of that may not be mended:
So conteck soone by concord mought be ended.
There are also rhyming triplets at 117-119 and 182-84, and a
quadruplet at 89-92. As some of these examples show, the poem makes an
expressive use of polysyllabic latinate words (especially in rhyme positions),
in contrast to
Februarie.
Piers’ fable strikes me as rather especially dull, maybe because of over-familiarity with fairy-tales
of the
Snow White type.
Iune.
Eight-line stanzas,
a5b5a5b5b5a5b5a5.
The smooth negotiation of this demanding rhyme-scheme was
meant to be noticed, and is even emphasized when two successive stanzas share a
rhyme-sound (81-96).
The poem promises a summer idling in the grateful shade, and
it delivers it, despite Colin’s sense of alienation; for he does in fact relax
and to some extent strives to accommodate the seasonal mood. For example, he
attributes his lack of interest in fame to a shepherd’s vocation – “But feede
his flocke in fields, where falls hem best”. (We know that this is not the true
cause of his lack of ambition; the true cause is that Rosalind has rejected him.) From the
same momentary relaxation arise his confidences about that affair, and the
heart-rending simplicity of
That she the truest shepheards hart made bleede,
That lyues on earth, and loued her most dere.
Colin’s belief in his art is briefly strengthened by the
softness of the season (“I play to please my selfe”, “I soone would learn these
woods”, etc).
I've spent a couple of days worrying over stanza 3, in particular its fourth line:
Hob. Then if by me thou list aduised be,
Forsake the soyle, that so doth the bewitch :
Leaue me those hilles, where harbrough nis to see,
Nor holybush, nor brere, nor winding witche :
And to the dales resort, where shepheards ritch,
And fruictful flocks bene euery where to see :
Here no night Rauens lodge more black then pitche,
Nor eluish ghosts, nor gastly owles doe flee.
Not perhaps a line that will strike you as worrying. I'm sure 99 out of 100 readers take it in their stride as an unimportant but decorative fill-in. It sounds wonderful, the grammar seems fine, and it seems at any rate feasible that compared to the dales the hills might be lacking in holly-bushes, briars and wych-elms.
Nevertheless I'm bothered about it, and it's all the fault of D'Orsay W. Pearson.
"In
June, Rosalind appears as a metaphorical Circe who enervates Colin's poetic power. Hobbinol urges him, 'Forsake the soyle, that so doth the bewitch:/ Leave me those hilles, where harbrough nis to see,/ Nor holybush, nor brere, nor winding witche' (18-20). It is not the "soyle" but Rosalind, 'the winding witche', who bewitches Colin." (D'Orsay W. Pearson, article on
witches in A.C. Hamilton, ed.
The Spenser Encyclopaedia (1990).)
When I first read this, I had one of those
A-ha! moments. Of course! (I reflected) Spenser is not the sort of poet who goes around mentioning a "winding witche" without a symbolic purpose. Obviously (I conceded) there is a Circean theme hidden in this carefully chosen vegetation. Throw in some ravens black as pitch and some ghastly owls... Well, case closed!
But it doesn't work. Hobbinol is advising Colin to try a change of scene. If the "winding witche" symbolizes Rosalind then it ought to be in the place that Colin is advised to flee from, and not in the place that he is advised to flee to. Nevertheless I was so enthusiastic about Pearson's interpretation that I was tempted to mend the appearances with a conjectural emendation:
Leaue me those hilles, where harbrough nis to see
But holybush or brere or winding witche...
You must admit this tightens up the argument considerably. First, it supplies a reason for mentioning the shrubs at all, i.e. their potential as makeshift shelters in the absence of sheep-folds. Second, by sounding the Circean theme earlier in the stanza it means that the later claims ("Here no night Rauens lodge" etc) no longer seem quite so left-field.
But no, it won't do. This Circean theme is a mirage, I think. Are those three plants really so Circean? Surely if Spenser is being symbolic he could hardly be unaware of the Christmas association of holly (especially when spelled "holy")? The ravens and elvish ghosts are adequately led up to by Colin's description, in the preceding stanza, of his gloomy state of mind, pursued by angry gods. The real function of these last lines is to lead in (by contrast) to the subject of the Muses, with which
Iune is much concerned.
E.K. informs us that Hobbinol's advice to leave the hills
refers to the author moving back to the soft South - and takes the opportunity for an absurd digression on the North and South, Hilliness of, Compared. I don't know why E.K. would make this up, but there is no other evidence that Spenser visited the North (Grosart's theories of Rose Dineley and Burnley and Pendle Hill, still widely distributed around the internet, are at best an extrapolation from E.K.'s notes, at worst grounded in
sheer error). The shepherdly world of these "dales", so blessed by the Muses, seems to me an image not of the South in general but of some poetry-dedicated circle such as the Sidneys.
I'm continuing to worry over it, just a bit. What close examination of
Iune definitely reveals is that Spenser is not in a schematic mood. Hobbinol's attempt to invoke a contrasting "there" and "here" is much undercut by the rest of the poem. Neither Rosalind nor the Muses nor Colin seem to stay pinned down in one place. There are other threats to tidy thinking, too. As Paul Alpers complained, Colin says that he took delight (in the Muses, etc) when he was free from love, and then immediately adds that those were the days when he sang of love. The refusal of the poem to fit in with its own schemes is probably the main lesson of this divagation. Perhaps, along with "Conjectural Emendation, Finally Rejected", it could stand as an example of the kinds of interest to be found in dull country.
Iulye.
In quatrains, with the form
a4b3a4b3. The
b lines
are not capitalized, so the quatrain can also be interpreted as two divided
fourteeners.
A debate between the lover of hills and the lover of
valleys, this poem arises boldly from a sub-theme that had been pervasively
present in
Iune. E.K. calls Morrell a proud and ambitious pastor, and
the woodcut shows him with a tonsure, but the actual poem is more nuanced.
(A pastor and a shepherd: the words mean the same. So what are the two sides in this debate, really? Is it about what language to use?)
Certainly the right does not lie all with Thomalin. It
is after all Morrell who says:
There is the caue, where Phebe layed,
the shepheard long to dreame.
- beautiful lines that Keats surely lingered on. And it’s
also Morrell who supplies the concord of the ending:
Ah good Algrin, his hap was ill,
but shall be better in time.
Now farwell shepheard, sith thys hyll
thou hast such doubt to climbe.
The position we are placed in here, of witnessing an allegorical debate without fully fathoming its application, strikes me as quite characteristic of the
Shepheard's Calender, and as a feature that connects it with the poetry we write today. For some of us it gives this earlier poem a relevance that Spenser's later work, specifically the incessant and monumental achievement of the
Faerie Queene, never approaches.
This sense of relelvance may seem to disappear to the extent that you accept Percy W. Long's
persuasive demonstration (PMLA vol 31 no 4, 1916), that
Februarie,
Iulye and
September are all about bishops (Spenser was secretary to the Bishop of Rochester in 1578, whatever services that post might entail!). According to Long, Morrell represents Aylmer, Bishop of London in 1579 (and Grindal's successor). But when you read the poems, these local references don't seem to exhaust them, it's almost like Spenser used his bishops as building blocks.
The hill is also Spenser’s poetry, it seems to me.
Thomalin says:
The hylls, where dwelled holy saints,
I reuerence and adore:
Not for themselfe, but for the sayncts,
which han be dead of yore.
Chaucer and his followers permitted rhyme between two
identical phonemes, but only if they meant different things, which in this case
is what the varying orthography also seems to imply. But what distinction in meaning is intended here? It is saints who dwelled, and it is saints who died. The distinction I suggest is doctrinal; Spenser is staking out a Puritan reinvention of traditional piety. One way or another, he was determined to reverence those hills.
August.
The frame is at first
a5b5a5b5c5c5, but by line 10
this is already turning into neo-Medieval 4-accent lines of the kind described
in
Februarie. It becomes regularly iambic again at 139, introducing the change of mood leading up to
Cuddie’s recitation of Colin’s “lay”. The roundelay is
a4b4a4b4, with
the first two accents of the second line represented by the placed syllables
“hey ho”. The lay is a sestina mostly in pentameters, but with two
alexandrines, one of them the last line before the coda.
The sestina and its framework (beginning at 139) appear to
be a late addition (too late for E.K. to lecture us about Philomela and Tereus), but it was an
inspired one: a beautiful sestina - a very rare thing, that - even though it is a doleful plaint (see notes on
November),
and its inclusion transforms
August into a many-sided exploration of how the
personal pain of love makes art, whether merry or
sad (cf. 144).
This sestina seems to concern a requited – but temporarily
absent – love, which is not consistent with what we learn elsewhere of Rosalind. But then
you can also argue that there is inconsistency generally, since Rosalind in
Januarie
rejects Colin’s wooing completely, and thus cannot be guilty of the inconstancy
that Colin complains of in
Iune.
September.
Neo-Medieval couplets, as
Februarie and
Maye.
The three poems are also connected by thematic material that concerns the
recent history of church reform and by a structure that issues in some kind of
fable, in this case the anecdote about Roffynn, his well-meaning dog Lowder, and the
treacherous wolf.
The poem takes place late in the day, and a windy day too.
The two speakers take a while before they reach an accord. Diggon is bitter, he
is politicized in an embarrassing way. Hobbinol, not encountering the expected
discourse, needs to turn things this way and that before he can settle. He is
(not very flatteringly) portrayed as a timorous, conventional stay-at-home who
at first does not understand the sharp discourse of Diggon, and when he does
understand it is afraid of such plain speaking. But they gradually come together through
the fable (which is oddly told in the wrong order); as if they smile over
Lowder as a real dog, and it brings them together. After automatically
lamenting his inability to offer any real help, Hobbinol is able to produce a
resolution by offering Diggon a bed to sleep on. But Diggon has to shelve his
uncompromising radicalism and give vent to his (more socially acceptable)
personal distress before this sympathetic resolution can be achieved.
October.
Six-line stanzas, regularly iambic,
a5b5b5a5b5a5.
This poem, about the sustenance of poetry, is subtly and
multiply linked to its month: the month of harvest and of vintage, but also the
month when the sun is perceptibly losing strength and we feel bareness around
us.
It so happens that I'm writing this in October, watching the shops gain vigour and fullness with the autumn season. Oh, how wonderful and fecund all the products seem! The impossible variety of the books in Waterstones, all so eminently worth reading! Really, we don't give enough credit to anything. Why, the piped music itself: how long it is since I remembered Elvis Costello, or Talking Heads - what buried treasures in the recent past, how acclaimed those album sequences once were, I never liked them enough but I still ended up owning some of those 5-star-review albums for a while - and now? In this consumer ecstasy, walking around like an animated Mojo magazine, there is something profoundly attractive in the thought of spending time - much more time - with Spenser's poetry. Yet you can no more find the
Shepheard's Calender in Waterstones than you can find Allen Fisher or Caroline Bergvall - I checked. (Disconcerting, seeing Tao Lin on the displays.)
So the rural harvest has morphed into This Year's Model, but the seasonal rhythm remains. It's salutary to check my inner criticism of Spenser for not being a genuine shepherd, for dressing up his versifying pals in fake pastoral garb, and to remember that we readers of Spenser are not shepherds either. The poem is an artificial meeting-place, but its seasons are still real. And curiously I find the poems in the
Shepheard's Calender quite convincingly naturalistic. There is weather and labour in the grain of the verse, there's a largeness in Spenser's realization of pastoral, it has not yet refined into Herrick (or indeed Sidney). Maybe that has something to do with the bishops - i.e. with a background in work, even if it wasn't rural work.
The
Shepheard's Calender was also a seminal consumer item. Never before had the marketing department distinguished itself so explicitly from the poet who was (tantalizingly) said to be so reluctant to "promulgate". What came on sale in 1579 was not just verse, it was the experience of discovering a poet. It was the experience of owning a bit of cultural history with a great sleeve, just like
Talking Heads '77.
October deliberately outruns its course. After setting
forth a mounting (Virgilian) progress into epic, climaxing with
O pierlesse Poesye, where is then
thy place? (79)
it gestures at moving upward to the stars, goes off at a
tangent meditating on Colin’s passions and poetic capacities, and then rejects
servitude to love; instead, Cuddie proposes drinking as the obvious way to
generate lofty verse. This is unserious, and descends just as inconsequentially
into the quietism of
For thy, content vs in thys humble shade:
Where no such troublous tydes han vs assayde,
Here we our slender pipes may safely charme. (116-18)
The resolution, as of the other poems, is tranquil,
certainly, but not precisely a matter for rejoicing – it is not the best, but
only making the best.
Nouember.
The frame is mainly
a5b5a5b5:b5c5b5c5:c5d5c5d5 etc. The
elaborate verses on Dido are mainly
a6b5a5b5b5c4c4d2b5d2, but with some
irregularities (e.g.
c5 at line 79).
Where bene the nosegayes that she dight for thee:
The colourd chaplets wrought with a chiefe,
The knotted rushrings, and gilte Rosemaree?
For shee deemed nothing too deere for thee.
.....
Thereof nought remaynes but the memoree... (114-17, 121)
The rhythm of the rest of the Dido ode is regularly iambic,
but this stanza is bumpy. “Wrought” was perhaps intended to be “wroughten” –
this line is a syllable short. The other irregular lines (117, 121) are at
least decasyllabic, and could be made semi-regular with some cunning placement
of accents, e.g. on “no
thing” (defensible) and “
remaynes”
(doubtful).
I care very little for the Dido ode. The long stanza and the
altering refrain (from “O heauie herse” to “O happye herse”) bring to mind
later triumphs; but what works in a marriage poem seems glib in a funeral poem.
Colin’s epanorthoses, though admired by E.K., are also unappealing to me:
Why doe we longer liue, (ah why liue we so long)
She while she was, (that was, a woful word to sayne)
They are a formal but strikingly crude way of registering
emotion; the self-interruption marks passion’s impatience with the ongoing
process of speech. Even more crude is the piling up of the vocabulary of “grieslie ghostes”, “streaming teares”,
dolefulness and woefulness.
Spenser wrote other poems that can be loosely called
elegies,
Daphnaida and
Astrophel. More accurately they should be
called doleful plaints. None of them appears to owe its origin to a personal or
deeply felt sense of bereavement; they are not really poems about death.
Perhaps it’s significant that
The Faerie Queene was perfectly designed
to be an enormous poem from which death is markedly absent. What Spenser is
poetically sensitive to is not death but mutability. He generalizes and
universalizes instinctively –
December is a good example of where this
can take us.
December.
a5b5a5b5c5c5 (as
Januarye).
December mentions death, as what comes after –
“dreerie” but “timely”. This is true in the sense that the fiction comes to an
end with the poem. It isn’t true in the sense that Colin is really old, drawing
near his latter end, or about to drop down dead. The only thing that’s really
going to die, we suspect, is Colin’s attachment to Rosalind.
The poem is a calendar within a calendar. Spenser felt the
form deeply, and he used it at the other end of his poetic career in the
Mutabilitie
cantos – but there he worked from March to February, according to the old
idea of when the year started and finished.
His use of it here is complicated. The year’s cycle, from
spring to winter, is used as a figure, both of Colin’s love affair (innocence,
passion, waste, decay) and of his whole life (youth, manhood, ripeness, age).
He is actually singing the song in December, which is imagined both as a
long-distant spring (or rather, Colin’s youthful spring extended even to
pre-Christmas occupations such as gathering nuts) and as the present onset of
winter. A similar complication applies to summer, when his fatal passion has
overpowered and alienated him, yet at the same time his skills and achievements
continue to expand. But Colin’s knowledge (e.g. of the heavens) will only
result in making him more capable of autumnally reckoning his own failure. At
some level this allows into the poem a Christian (and Hamlet-like) figuring of
the imperfection of man’s triumphs. December in England is, more than any other
month, associated with a Christian festival – it’s almost unimaginable without
Christmas. Thus the poem very subtly hints at a renunciation of earthly love
and the possible birth of spiritual love, as in the
Foure Hymnes.
The final stanzas are pleasingly naive. This naivety has
been an intermittent feature throughout the
Calender, something that
E.K. has been keen to annotate as suitable to a pastoral venture. Its function
at the end is surely to detach us from too close an identification with Colin –
his fictiveness is underlined. Behind him we hear, perhaps, the voice of the
poet announcing the end of his country pantomime:
Adieu delightes, that lulled me asleepe,
Adieu my deare, whose loue I bought so deare:
Adieu my little Lambes and loued sheepe,
Adieu ye Woodes that oft my witnesse were:
Adieu good Hobbinol, that was so true,
Tell Rosalind, her Colin bids her adieu.
For Colin and Rosalind it really is over, but not for the
poem or for the life in which it will find its function, both of them cycling
around the calendar for ever, as the
Epilogue points out.
*
NOTES
A note on “E.K.”
Many readers have assumed that E.K. is Spenser himself. They find it difficult to
believe that an unknown poet could persuade anyone else to take the time to
write elaborate commentary, and they think Spenser was greatly puffed – in
fact, altogether too conveniently – by commentary that already treats his work
as canonical, i.e in the opposite spirit to what is implied by Spenser's modest pen-name
Immeritô.
Our inability to resolve this simple matter tells us a good deal about how elusive
Spenser remains as a personality. References to E.K in the Spenser-Harvey
letters do not help, as they can be read equally well either as reflecting
Spenser’s somewhat mixed feelings about his real-life commentator or as Spenser
indulging in some comic elaboration of his invented persona. If you think
that E.K. is a Spenserian fiction, you may find it significant that Harvey does not trouble
to respond to the invitation to refer to E.K. or to pass on any greeting to
him.
Nevertheless, though intermittently tempted by the “E.K.=Spenser” theory I currently side
with C.S. Lewis (and Selincourt) in judging that E.K. was a real person,
independent from Spenser. Richard McCabe’s remark on the first page of his 1999 edition
of the shorter poems (“a literary agent too ideal to be other than fictitious”)
reflects a simple lack of historical awareness – and he surely ought to have
found room in the next 750 pages to address this important question in a little
more detail. It might be true that no new poet today can find a peer prepared to
subordinate themselves to close commentary mingled with outbursts of uncritical
acclamation (counter-examples occur to me), but anyway in 1579 everything was different, and besides Spenser wasn’t exactly
unknown. Unknown poets can’t find illustrators either, but that’s what Spenser
ended up with; good ones, who read his poems carefully.
To suppose that Spenser could have gone to the trouble of inventing such a wholly
consistent persona, one who shows off his learning at such frequently
irrelevant length, is to me unbelievable.
Examples of what I mean are the notes on Flora (
March), the
olive (
Aprill), Sardanapalus (
Maye), the ill omen of stumbling as
evinced by the Lord Hastings (
Maye), the height of Kentish hills (
June) the Elfs or Guelfs (
June),
etc. It’s relatively easy to see why a real E.K. might enjoy the opportunity to produce in Spenser's
margins a kind of emblem book or syncretistic compilation of learned gobbets, less easy to see what Spenser himself would gain from doing so. Did Spenser enjoy pedantic dressing-up, like Scott did? Furthermore, Lewis pointed out some of the more obvious places where
E.K. expresses sentiments at odds with what we know Spenser thought (e.g. of
Marot, Arthurian Legend, fairies, etc).
Or consider the headnote to
Nouember:
This Æglogue is made in imitation of Marot his song, which he made upon the death of Loys the frenche Queene. But
farre passing his reache, and in myne opinion all other the Eglogues of this
booke.
The same Spenser who later imagines his noble Sir Guyon "feeding his thoughts with his own praiseworthy deeds" no
doubt had a becoming pride in his own gifts, but I can’t believe he would
seriously describe even his best poem as far outstripping Marot’s capacities.
The problem with McCabe’s dismissal of E.K.’s reality is that he fails to take
account of the real and delicate context of the publication. Spenser had been a
prolific poet for ten years or more. His poems had circulated but he was
reluctant to publish. E.K. spurred Spenser on by writing his elaborate
commentaries to the
Calendar and also to the not-extant
Dreames, which
were set to be published in 1580 but never appeared. On E.K.’s own admission
Spenser had considerable input into the commentary. The glosses of archaic
words are probably his, and a mistake like the gloss to
Februarie 119
probably arose because Spenser automatically replied to a question about the
meaning of
wonned by giving the usual sense without realizing that E.K.
was asking about a line where he had used the word in a different way. No
doubt, too, they conferred about what not to gloss, e.g. Algrind.
But E.K. surely had a personal agenda (i.e. giving free rein to a mass of learning,
itself of considerable potential interest to an audience when books were
scarce) and it was apparently he rather than Spenser who arranged for the
woodcuts (the
Dreames had them too). He also planned to publish a
Spenserian treatise called the
English Poete. It seems that he was the
driving force behind these publications, and in some sense they were (or would
have been) his books rather than Spenser’s, whose own judgment on the proposed
follow-up (“Therin be some things excellently, and many things wittily
discoursed of
E.K...”) perhaps indicates understandable misgivings and a
possible reason why publication of the
Dreames in the end came to
nothing. But it was presumably the imminence of this second publication that
decided the editors of the Letters to maintain E.K.’s (as well as M.
Immeritô’s) semi-anonymity.
I confess to moments of uncertainty in writing this. The
Letters do look
to me like a piece of self-promotion in which Harvey and Spenser were prime movers (though some have argued that they landed Harvey in hot water). If they were capable of publishing "spontaneous" letters for publicity purposes, then perhaps they were capable of inventing an E.K. too. And of course if E.K and Spenser were working together on what to gloss then this means Spenser would have overseen E.K.'s contrary opinions anyway. Which weakens the argument that those contrary opinions prove that Spenser couldn't be E.K.
(The subject came up again in discussion with John Armstrong, who almost persuaded me that Spenser is E.K., at least some of the time:)
http://bebrowed.wordpress.com/2012/03/22/reading-spenser-and-e-k-with-andrew-zurcher/
http://bebrowed.wordpress.com/2012/03/26/edmund-spenser-and-e-k-a-response-to-michael-peverett/
A circular narrative in The Faerie Queene
In Book III of
The Faerie Queene there is a circularity in the story of
Florimell (or Britomart). I cannot remember to what extent this has been
discussed before, so I’ll just give the details here. I'm assuming that anyone who has read this far must have a pretty high tolerance for miscellaneous Spenser-related chitchat.
In the opening stanzas of Book III Canto I, Guyon and Arthur meet Britomart, who
jousts with Guyon and unseats him. They make it up and ride on together in good
spirits. Then, in St 15, they are passed by a “goodly Ladie” (named in the
legend as Florimell), pursued by a Foster. Arthur and Guyon set off in the hope
of rescuing her. Meanwhile, Britomart comes to Castle Ioyeous and after various
adventures there departs with the Redcrosse Knight.
Cantos II and III describe their conversation, with flashbacks concerning the origin
of Britomart’s quest. At the end of Canto III, they part, and in Canto IV,
after searching many lands, Britomart comes to the sea-shore (St 6). Here she
is challenged by Marinell. They fight, and she leaves him seriously injured (St
17). His mother Cymoent retrieves him. Finally, in St 45, the story turns back
to Arthur and Guyon. They split up when they come to “a double way” (St 46),
and the story now follows Arthur, who is overtaken by nightfall.
The next day, Arthur meets “a Dwarfe” (St 3), who is finally able to give some
information about Florimell. He tells us that she is in love with Marinell (St
8), but that five days ago Marinell met “a forreine foe” (St 9) and, rumour has
it, is slain. Four days ago, an anguished Florimell left the Court and vowed
never to return until she found him, alive or dead.
In the dwarf’s account of Florimell’s time-line, therefore, Florimell’s trouble
with the Foster must come after she left the court, which in turn must come
after Marinell’s wounding. Yet, on Britomart’s time-line, she sees Florimell in
trouble quite a long time before she ever encounters Marinell and leaves him
for dead.
There is no simple way in which the time-paradox could be emended away and Spenser
presumably incurred it deliberately. I don’t know what analogues may then have existed for a narrative that runs round
in a circle like this. It’s another good
example of Spenser’s capacity for surprising us with weird devices. It’s also, of course, an extreme instance of
the wild elasticity of time in Spenser’s land of Faerie.
(2004, 2013)
Labels: Edmund Spenser
